People normally distinguish between behaviors that are performed ‘intentionally’ and those that are performed ‘unintentionally.’ But philosophers have found it quite difficult to explain precisely what the distinction amounts to.
So, for example, there has been a great deal of controversy over the relationship between the concept intentional and the concept intention. Many philosophers accept the so-called ‘Simple View,’ according to which a behavior cannot correctly be considered ‘intentional’ unless the agent had an intention to perform it. However, Michael Bratman has argued in a series of influential publications that it is sometimes possible for an agent to intentionally perform an action even when he or she did not specifically intend to perform that action.
A similar controversy surrounds the problem of side effects. Suppose that an agent performs a behavior for the purpose of obtaining some outcome x. And now suppose the agent knows that this behavior will also bring about some other outcome y. The agent does not care at all about outcome why — her only motivation for performing the behavior is a desire to bring about outcome x. In a case like this one, has the agent intentionally brought about outcome why? Some philosophers say yes; others say no.
Part of the difficulty here results from the fact that people seem to have different intuitions depending on the nature of specific side effect involved. Thus, consider the case of a corporate CEO who decides to implement a new program. He knows that the program will have a certain side effect s, but he doesn’t care at all about effect s; his only aim is to increase profits. Has the CEO intentionally brought about effects? Here it can be shown that people's intuitions depend in a crucial way on what the effect s happens to be. When the side effect is described as 'harming the environment,’ most people say that the agent brought it about intentionally; but when the side effect is described as 'helping the environment, most people say that the agent did not bring it about intentionally. A number of philosophers have proposed theories designed to handle tricky cases like these.
Finally, a particularly complex and thorny puzzle concerns the issue of deviant causal chains. This issue can be brought out with an example from Davidson: “A man may try to kill someone by shooting at him. Suppose the killer misses his victim by a mile, but the shot stampedes a herd of wild pigs that trample the intended victim to death.” Here the agent intends to kill a person and actually does kill that person, but it appears that the intention somehow fails to bring about the action ‘in the right way’ and that the agent cannot therefore be said to have killed the person intentionally. Although a number of philosophers have offered accounts of precisely what it means for an intention to bring about action ‘in the right way’, no real consensus has emerged.
Reference:
philosophy.uwaterloo.ca
Saturday, August 14, 2010
Read Between The Lines
Meaning: Discern a meaning which isn't made obvious or explicit.
This expression derives from a simple form of cryptography, in which a hidden meaning was conveyed by secreting it between lines of text. It originated in the mid 19th century and soon became used to refer to the deciphering of any coded or unclear form of communication, whether written or not. For example, one might say "She said she was happy to go to the party but didn't seem concerned when it was cancelled. Reading between the lines, I don't think she wanted to go in the first place".
How many times have you had a conversation with someone, and their words didn't match up with their actions? Conventional wisdom says action speaks louder than words, but it also says that a man is only as good as his word. Which is correct? How do you read between the lines to get at what's really being said? Confusion arises when words and actions aren't in sync. Read on to learn how to read between the lines.
Pay attention to the words. What is the person saying? Are they using phrases like "to be honest (with you)" or "I'm not gonna lie to you," in an effort to convince you of their sincerity?
Pay attention to the tone of voice. Is the person speaking in a clear, calm manner? Are they getting defensive? Is their voice raised? Pay particular attention when someone tries to shout you down. You are definitely hitting a nerve.
Pay attention to body language. Ninety percent of communication is nonverbal. Look at how a person is sitting, standing and staring during the conversation. Are they fidgeting? Looking around the room? Arms and legs crossed? Leaning toward or away from you? Contrary to popular belief, a steady, eye-to-eye gaze does not necessarily imply honesty. This is a trick that many liars use in order to give the semblance of sincerity.
Do a gut check. When in doubt, listen to what your gut says. If something feelsoff, then it probably is. Your first reaction is usually the correct one.
References:
www.phrases.org.uk
www.ehow.com
This expression derives from a simple form of cryptography, in which a hidden meaning was conveyed by secreting it between lines of text. It originated in the mid 19th century and soon became used to refer to the deciphering of any coded or unclear form of communication, whether written or not. For example, one might say "She said she was happy to go to the party but didn't seem concerned when it was cancelled. Reading between the lines, I don't think she wanted to go in the first place".
How many times have you had a conversation with someone, and their words didn't match up with their actions? Conventional wisdom says action speaks louder than words, but it also says that a man is only as good as his word. Which is correct? How do you read between the lines to get at what's really being said? Confusion arises when words and actions aren't in sync. Read on to learn how to read between the lines.
Pay attention to the words. What is the person saying? Are they using phrases like "to be honest (with you)" or "I'm not gonna lie to you," in an effort to convince you of their sincerity?
Pay attention to the tone of voice. Is the person speaking in a clear, calm manner? Are they getting defensive? Is their voice raised? Pay particular attention when someone tries to shout you down. You are definitely hitting a nerve.
Pay attention to body language. Ninety percent of communication is nonverbal. Look at how a person is sitting, standing and staring during the conversation. Are they fidgeting? Looking around the room? Arms and legs crossed? Leaning toward or away from you? Contrary to popular belief, a steady, eye-to-eye gaze does not necessarily imply honesty. This is a trick that many liars use in order to give the semblance of sincerity.
Do a gut check. When in doubt, listen to what your gut says. If something feelsoff, then it probably is. Your first reaction is usually the correct one.
References:
www.phrases.org.uk
www.ehow.com
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